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Cadmium telluride photovoltaics - Wikipedia. PV array made of cadmium telluride (Cd.

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Te) solar panels. Cadmium telluride (Cd.

Te) photovoltaics describes a photovoltaic (PV) technology that is based on the use of cadmium telluride, a thin semiconductor layer designed to absorb and convert sunlight into electricity.[1] Cadmium telluride PV is the only thin film technology with lower costs than conventional solar cells made of crystalline silicon in multi- kilowatt systems.[1][2][3]On a lifecycle basis, Cd. Te PV has the smallest carbon footprint, lowest water use and shortest energy payback time of all solar technologies.[4][5][6] Cd. Te's energy payback time of less than a year allows for faster carbon reductions without short- term energy deficits. The toxicity of cadmium is an environmental concern mitigated by the recycling of Cd. Te modules at the end of their life time,[7] though there are still uncertainties[8][9] and the public opinion is skeptical towards this technology.[1.

The usage of rare materials may also become a limiting factor to the industrial scalability of Cd. Te technology in the mid- term future. The abundance of tellurium—of which telluride is the anionic form—is comparable to that of platinum in the earth's crust and contributes significantly to the module's cost.[1. Cd. Te photovoltaics are used in some of the world's largestphotovoltaic power stations, such as the Topaz Solar Farm. With a share of 5. PV production, Cd.

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Te technology accounted for more than half of the thin film market in 2. A prominent manufacturer of Cd. Te thin film technology is the company First Solar, based in Tempe, Arizona. Background[edit].

Cross- section of a Cd. Te thin film solar cell. The dominant PV technology has always been based on crystalline silicon wafers. Thin films and concentrators were early attempts to lower costs. Thin films are based on using thinner semiconductor layers to absorb and convert sunlight. Concentrators lower the number of panels by using lenses or mirrors to put more sunlight on each panel. The first thin film technology to be extensively developed was amorphous silicon.

However, this technology suffers from low efficiencies and slow deposition rates (leading to high capital costs). Instead, the PV market reached some 4 gigawatts in 2. The same source estimated that about 3 gigawatts were installed in 2. During this period cadmium telluride and copper indium diselenide or CIS- alloys remained under development. The latter is beginning to be produced in volumes of 1–3. Cd. Te cell efficiency is approaching 2.

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History[edit]Research in Cd. Te dates back to the 1. V) is almost a perfect match to the distribution of photons in the solar spectrum in terms of conversion to electricity. A simple heterojunction design evolved in which p- type Cd. Te was matched with n- type cadmium sulfide (Cd. S). The cell was completed by adding top and bottom contacts.

Early leaders in Cd. S/Cd. Te cell efficiencies were GE in the 1. Kodak, Monosolar, Matsushita, and AMETEK.[citation needed]By 1. Kodak used close spaced sublimation (CSS) and made the first 1. Monosolar[2. 4] and AMETEK[2. Matsushita started with screen printing but shifted in the 1.

CSS. Cells of about 1. Kodak, Matsushita, Monosolar and AMETEK.[2. An important step forward occurred when cells were scaled- up in size to make larger area products called modules.

These products required higher currents than small cells and it was found that an additional layer, called a transparent conducting oxide (TCO), could facilitate the movement of current across the top of the cell (instead of a metal grid). One such TCO, tin oxide, was available for other uses (thermally reflective windows). Made more conductive for PV, tin oxide became and remains the norm in Cd.

Te PV modules. Cd. Te cells achieved above 1. TCO/Cd. S/Cd. Te stack and then thinned the Cd. S to admit more light. Chu used resistive tin oxide as the buffer layer and then thinned the Cd. S from several micrometres to under half a micrometre in thickness. Thick Cd. S, as it was used in prior devices, blocked about 5 m.

A/cm. 2 of light, or about 2. Cd. Te device. The additional layer did not compromise the device's other properties.[2. In the early 1. 99. Golden Photon held the record for a short period for the best Cd. Te module measured at NREL at 7. Matsushita claimed an 1.

CSS and then dropped the technology. A similar efficiency and fate eventually occurred at BP Solar. BP used electrodeposition (inherited from Monosolar by a circuitous route when it purchased SOHIO, Monosolar's acquirer). BP Solar dropped Cd. Te in the early 2. Antec was able to make about 7%- efficient modules, but went bankrupt when it started producing commercially during a short, sharp market downturn in 2.

However, as of 2. Antec still made Cd. Te PV modules.[2. Cd. Te start- ups include Calyxo[2. Q- Cells), Prime.

Star Solar, in Arvada, Colorado (acquired by First Solar from GE),[2. Arendi (Italy).[citation needed] Including Antec, their total production represents less than 7.

Empa, the Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research, focuses on the development of Cd. Te solar cells on flexible substrates and demonstrated cell efficiencies of 1.

SCI and First Solar[edit]The major commercial success was by Solar Cells Incorporated (SCI). Its founder, Harold Mc. Master, envisioned low- cost thin films made on a large scale. After trying amorphous silicon, he shifted to Cd. Te at the urging of Jim Nolan and founded Solar Cells Inc., which later became First Solar.[3. Mc. Master championed Cd. Te for its high- rate, high- throughput processing.

SCI shifted from an adaptation of the CSS method then shifted to vapor transport.[3. In February 1. 99.

Mc. Master sold the company to True North Partners, who named it First Solar.[3. In its early years First Solar suffered setbacks, and initial module efficiencies were modest, about 7%. Commercial product became available in 2. Production reached 2. The company manufactured in Perrysburg, Ohio and Germany.[3. In 2. 01. 3, First Solar acquired GE's thin film solar panel technology in exchange for a 1. Today, First Solar manufactures over 3 gigawatts with an average module efficiency of 1.

Technology[edit]Cell efficiency[edit]Recently, in August 2. First Solar announced a device with 2. In February 2. 01. First Solar announced that they had reached a record 2.

Cd. Te cells. In 2. First Solar from 1.

At this time, the company projected average production line module efficiency for its Cd. Te PV to be 1. 7% by 2. Since Cd. Te has the optimal band gap for single- junction devices, efficiencies close to 2.

CIS alloys) may be achievable in practical Cd. Te cells.[4. 3]Process optimization[edit]Process optimization improved throughput and lowered costs. Improvements included broader substrates (since capital costs scale sublinearly and installation costs can be reduced), thinner layers (to save material, electricity, and processing time), and better material utilization (to save material and cleaning costs).

Cd. Te module costs are about $7. Ambient temperature[edit]Module efficiencies are measured in laboratories at standard testing temperatures of 2. C, however in the field modules are often exposed to much higher temperatures. Cd. Te’s relatively low temperature coefficient protects performance at higher temperatures.[4. Watch Cold Fusion Online Gorillavid. Cd. Te PV modules experience half the reduction of crystalline silicon modules, resulting in an increased annual energy output of 5- 9%.[4. Solar tracking[edit]Almost all thin film photovoltaic module systems to- date have been non- solar tracking, because module output was too low to offset tracker capital and operating costs.

But relatively inexpensive single- axis tracking systems can add 2. In addition, depending on the Tracker Energy Gain, the overall eco- efficiency of the PV system can be enhanced by lowering both system costs and environmental impacts.[5. This is climate- dependent. Tracking also produces a smoother output plateau around midday, better matching afternoon peaks.